Law of Evidence (Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023) – 2nd Mid Notes
📘 English + à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు (Bilingual Legal Study Notes)
Part A – Core Concepts
1️⃣ Direct and Indirect Evidence
Direct Evidence: Directly proves a fact without inference. Example: “I saw A stab B.”
Indirect (Circumstantial) Evidence: Proves facts that lead to logical inference of guilt. Example: A’s motive, presence, and bloodstains together indicate guilt.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°ª్à°°à°¤్యక్à°· à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ం à°…ంà°Ÿే à°µాà°¸్తవాà°¨్à°¨ి à°¨ేà°°ుà°—ా à°¨ిà°°ూà°ªింà°šేà°¦ి. పరోà°•్à°· (Circumstantial) à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ం à°…ంà°Ÿే à°µాà°¸్తవాà°¨ిà°•ి à°¸ంà°¬ంà°§ింà°šిà°¨ à°¸ంà°•ేà°¤ాà°² à°¦్à°µాà°°ా à°¨ిà°°ూà°ªింà°šేà°¦ి.
2️⃣ Test Identification Parade (TIP)
Meaning: A lineup procedure where a witness identifies a suspect from among several people.
Purpose: To test the witness’s memory and confirm the correctness of investigation.
Legal Basis: Section 7, BSA – facts establishing the identity of a person.
Value: TIP is not conclusive but only corroborative evidence.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: TIP à°…ంà°Ÿే à°¨ింà°¦ిà°¤ుà°¡ిà°¨ి ఇతరుà°² మధ్à°¯ à°—ుà°°్à°¤ించమని à°¸ాà°•్à°·ిà°¨ి à°…à°¡à°—à°¡ం. ఇది à°¨ిà°°్à°§ారణకంà°Ÿే à°§ృà°µీà°•à°°à°£ à°•ోà°¸ం à°®ాà°¤్à°°à°®ే ఉపయోగపడుà°¤ుంà°¦ి.
3️⃣ Hostile Witness
A hostile witness is one who turns against the party that called them. Under Section 157 BSA, such a witness may be cross-examined by the same side.
Even though hostile, credible parts of their testimony may still be relied upon by the court.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°¸ాà°•్à°·ి తన à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ాà°¨్à°¨ి à°®ాà°°్à°šినప్à°ªుà°¡ు à°²ేà°¦ా à°ª్à°°à°¤్యర్à°¥ి పక్à°·ాà°¨ à°µాà°•్యమిà°¸్à°¤ే, అతన్à°¨ి hostile witness à°…ంà°Ÿాà°°ు. à°•ోà°°్à°Ÿు à°…à°¨ుమతిà°¤ో అతన్à°¨ి cross-examine à°šేయవచ్à°šు.
4️⃣ Collusion
Definition: A secret agreement between two or more persons to deceive the court or defraud another.
Effect: Any judgment obtained by collusion is void and can be set aside.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°•ోà°°్à°Ÿుà°¨ు à°®ోà°¸ం à°šేయడాà°¨ిà°•ి ఇద్దరు à°²ేà°¦ా à°…ంతకంà°Ÿే à°Žà°•్à°•ుà°µ à°®ంà°¦ి కలసి à°•ుà°Ÿ్à°° పన్à°¨ినప్à°ªుà°¡ు à°¦ాà°¨ిà°¨ి Collusion à°…ంà°Ÿాà°°ు. à°…à°²ాంà°Ÿి à°¤ీà°°్à°ªు à°šెà°²్లదు.
Part B – Doctrines & Privileges
1️⃣ Privileged Communications under BSA
- Section 125: Judges and Magistrates – cannot be questioned about their conduct in court.
- Section 126: Marital Communications – communication between spouses protected even after divorce.
- Section 127: Affairs of State – unpublished official records protected.
- Section 128: Official Communications – officers may withhold info if public interest suffers.
- Section 129: Source of Crime Information – magistrates/police cannot be compelled to reveal sources.
- Section 130: Professional (Lawyer-Client) Communication – protected unless used for illegal purpose.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°¨్à°¯ాయమూà°°్à°¤ుà°²ు, à°ాà°°్à°¯ాà°à°°్తల మధ్à°¯ à°¸ంà°ాషణలు, à°ª్à°°à°ుà°¤్à°µ రహస్à°¯ాà°²ు, మరిà°¯ు à°¨్à°¯ాయవాà°¦ి-à°•్లయింà°Ÿ్ సమాà°šాà°°ాà°²ు à°•ోà°°్à°Ÿుà°²ో బలవంà°¤ంà°—ా à°µెà°²్లడింà°šà°°ాà°¦ు.
2️⃣ Doctrine of Judicial Notice
Meaning: Courts take notice of well-known or easily verifiable facts without proof.
Sections: 51–52 BSA.
Examples of Judicially Noticeable Facts:
- Laws in force in India.
- Official seals, national symbols, and public officers.
- Proceedings of Parliament/Legislature.
Landmark Cases:
- Onkar Nath vs. Delhi Administration – Courts must take notice of statutory notifications.
- Harishankar Jain vs. Sonia Gandhi – Foreign laws need to be proved as facts.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°•ోà°°్à°Ÿు à°…ందరిà°•ీ à°¤ెà°²ిà°¸ిà°¨ à°²ేà°¦ా à°…à°§ిà°•ాà°°ిà°•ంà°—ా à°§ృà°µీà°•à°°ించదగిà°¨ à°µిà°·à°¯ాలను à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ం à°²ేà°•ుంà°¡ాà°¨ే à°…ంà°—ీà°•à°°ించవచ్à°šు. à°¦ీà°¨్à°¨ే Judicial Notice à°…ంà°Ÿాà°°ు.
Part C – Problem-Based Questions
1️⃣ Admissibility of In-Court Identification Without TIP
Rule: Identification made by witnesses in court is substantive evidence, even if no TIP was held.
Reasoning: TIP is only corroborative, not mandatory. Failure to conduct TIP doesn’t make in-court ID inadmissible.
However: The defense may challenge its reliability due to lack of prior TIP.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: TIP à°¨ిà°°్వహింà°šà°•à°ªోà°¯ిà°¨ా, à°•ోà°°్à°Ÿుà°²ో à°¸ాà°•్à°·ి à°šేà°¸ిà°¨ à°—ుà°°్à°¤ింà°ªు à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ంà°—ా పరిà°—à°£ించబడుà°¤ుంà°¦ి. à°…à°¯ిà°¤ే à°¦ాà°¨ి à°µిà°¶్వసనీయతపై à°¸ంà°¦ేà°¹ం à°µ్యక్à°¤ం à°šేయవచ్à°šు.
2️⃣ Use of Information from ‘B’ Against ‘A’ (Discovery Evidence)
Section 24 BSA: When facts are discovered based on information from an accused in custody, only that part of the statement relating to the discovery is admissible.
Against Whom: The statement is admissible against the maker (B). But the discovery of stolen goods at A’s place is relevant against A.
Result: Discovery of goods at A’s home is strong circumstantial evidence against him.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు: à°¨ింà°¦ిà°¤ుà°¡ు ఇచ్à°šిà°¨ సమాà°šాà°°ంà°¤ో ఆస్à°¤ి à°•à°¨ుà°—ొనబడిà°¤ే, à°† సమాà°šాà°°ం ఇచ్à°šిà°¨ à°ాà°—à°®ే à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ంà°—ా పరిà°—à°£ించబడుà°¤ుంà°¦ి. à°† à°•à°¨ుà°—ొనబడిà°¨ ఆస్à°¤ి ‘A’ దగ్à°—à°° à°¦ొà°°ిà°•ిà°¤ే, à°…à°¦ి అతనిà°•ి à°µ్యతిà°°ేà°•ంà°—ా బలమైà°¨ పరోà°•్à°· à°¸ాà°•్à°·్యమవుà°¤ుంà°¦ి.
🧠Summary
- Direct & Circumstantial Evidence form the backbone of proof.
- TIP is corroborative, not substantive.
- Hostile witnesses can be cross-examined by the same party.
- Privileged communications ensure confidentiality in justice.
- Judicial Notice saves time by accepting obvious facts.
- Discovery statements (Section 24 BSA) form crucial links in evidence.
à°¤ెà°²ుà°—ు à°¸ాà°°ాంà°¶ం: à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ à°šà°Ÿ్à°Ÿంà°²ో à°ª్à°°à°¤్యక్à°·, పరోà°•్à°· à°¸ాà°•్à°·్à°¯ాà°²ు, TIP, Privileged Communications, Judicial Notice మరిà°¯ు Discovery Statements à°•ీలక à°…ంà°¶ాà°²ు.
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